investiGaming - Research Findings on Gender and Games

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investiGaming is a publication of the Serious Game Design group in the Department of Telecommunication, Information Studies, and Media at Michigan State University, 2007-2009

This gateway is partially supported by grant 0631771 from the National Science Foundation.

The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent Michigan State University or the National Science Foundation.

Gender Stereotypes

investiGaming ›  Tags ›  Gender Stereotypes

Scope Definition: GENDER STEREOTYPES is to conceive or treat someone based on a conventional, formulaic, oversimplified and exaggerated image like a caricature, often negative.
Selected Highlights from GENDER STEREOTYPES tag (scroll down to see the full list of entries with this tag, including links to the entries)

The Game Industry Has a Stereotypical View of Players
• The popular stereotype of the game player as an antisocial male teenager not longer holds; there is increasing evidence of females playing games.  Our notion of “who is the player” needs greater depth and consideration of everyday leisure contexts.  (Bryce, 2002)
• A team developing computer games was found to have no clear age in mind for their target player, but they were unconsciously targeting males.  Designers assumed that female players needed “special” themes, while male players wanted “normal” themes.  Game designers said they begin game design by thinking of a plot that is interesting to the player, but they never asked potential players and mainly imagine what players want. (John, 2006)
• Research on “what girls like best” in gaming has stalled in thinking, drawing from the early work of Cassells and Jenkins.  A gamut of gender stereotypes have become canonical in the field, re-instated by Sheri Graner-Ray.  Games studies research on “what girls like best” needs to be re-thought drawing on broader approaches to gender and socio-cultural studies, or else the research will further legitimate inequalities and stereotypes.  (Jensen, 2007)
• The games industry has approached the female market three ways:  hoping women will adapt to existing styles, designing games especially for girls and women, and modifying existing games to make them “transgender.” The second approach – giving girls what they want, such as non-violent activities that build relationships and resolve conflicts – has been highly successful, seen in The Sims and There.  Unfortunately, the approach still tends to rely on stereotypes of women.  The third approach is attempted in the game Neverwinter Nights.  An analysis of Neverwinter Nights found that despite the inclusion of features to add feminine appeal and a rejection of gender difference, it is strongly stereotypical with regard to women and heteronormative, that is, conforming to a heterosexual view of relationships in the characters, the story and the game environments. (Corneliussen, 2006)
• Educators designing software for girls tended to design “learning tools.” When they designed software for boys or students (gender neutral), they tended to design “games.” Their notions of the potential user resulted in sex-stereotyped software.  (Huff, 1997)
• According to web pages that emerged in late 1997 and early 1998, there was a culture of female gamers that questioned the assumptions of researchers about girls.  Called “game girls,” they did not feel left out of gaming and wish for their own world of games, as researchers thought.  They tended to be older and more confident than the “girls” described in research.  They liked competition and enjoyed fighting games.  They questioned stereotypes both in existing games and in the work of researchers talking about girls. (Jenkins, 1998)
• It is possible to do socially positive work in the business of developing new media such as games, multimedia, and virtual reality, as well as make money.  The founder of Purple Moon and employee of Interval Research Corporation tells how.  (Laurel, 2001)
• Society is positioning women as consumers rather than creators of technology.  (Witkowski, 2006)
• Female players were more aggressive, by personality, than female non-players but they were similar in gender identity, degree of sex role stereotyping, or acceptance of sexual violence.  Game players perceived their online environment as less friendly, but they experienced less sexual harassment online than non-players.  Game players were less likely to be in computer-related employment.  Women with high-masculine identities were more likely to use computers at work. (Norris, 2004)

Game Designers Reinforce Stereotypes in Designing Characters
• Game designers working on a male character aimed to represent “the average guy” based on photographs, anatomically correct in proportion.  Game designers designing a female character did not use photos as they do in designing male characters, because photos were not “sexy” enough; they used images from the internet and the female character was not anatomically correct.  Game designers need to be made aware of unconscious choices in designing characters, to avoid unconscious sexism.  (John, 2006)
• Video game characters potentially shape players’ perceptions of gender roles through indirect messages.  Players learn societal expectations of appearance, behavior, and roles for men and women.  In a content analysis of 49 articles in video game magazine articles, male characters were more likely to be heroes and main characters, use more weapons, have more abilities, and be more muscular and powerful.  Females were more often supplemental characters, more attractive, sexy, and innocent, and wear more revealing clothing.  (Miller, 2007)

How Players Respond to Avatars and Characters in Games
• A majority of both men and women chose female avatars with exaggerated sexual features and did not consider them abnormal.  However, clothes made a big difference.  Both men and women preferred female avatars that are dressed modestly and show less skin. Avatars representing negative stereotypes of women were shunned and those representing positive stereotypes were preferred.  (Larsson, 2005)
• Presented with a neutral or androgynous character in educational software, primary school children tended to identify them as male, but girls were more willing to see them as female.  (Bradshaw, 1995)
• People playing a trivia game with a cartoon-computer-character attributed more competence and conformity to the computer-character if it was male-like, they were working in text only, and they were doing multiple tasks simultaneously.  The advantages of the male cartoon-computer-character over the female cartoon-character disappeared if the trivia game used speech output, which demanded more processing attention on the part of the player.  (Lee, 2008)
• Girls reported less experience in using computers in school.  There were no differences between girls and boys playing games.  Boys were significantly more likely than girls to own computers and use computers more frequently outside of school.  Boys and girls equally used computers outside of school for word processing.  There were significant differences between boys and girls in attitudes: boys were more positive and boys endorsed sex-stereotypical views.  Older students of both sexes reported less enthusiasm for computers.  The youngest students reported the most use outside school.  Older girls were significantly less likely to endorse sex-stereotypical views than their male peers.  (Durndell, 1995)

Games Can Be Designed to Challenge Stereotypes
• There is increasing evidence of women playing games.  The trend in this use of leisure offers potential for using gaming as an activity that can be used to challenge stereotypes of women. (Bryce, 2003)
• Game worlds are still largely about epic struggles and portray women in stereotypes, in spite of the arrival and ubiquitous use of games like Second Life and Sims2 that are gender-neutral.  (Brunner, 2008)
• Games designed by middle school girls had a prominent theme of expressing and working through fears and social issues in their stories.  The girls tended to use bright, vivid colors.  Their stories took place in real world settings.  Their stories involved moral decisions.  They rarely used violent feedback.  They used games to play with gender stereotypes, challenging authority, using humor. (Denner, 2005)

The Industry Needs to Serve Girls & Build the Skills of Everyone
• Games are significant in forming children’s attitudes toward computers and enabling learning.  However, games currently appeal largely to boys.  A few games designed for girls exploit typical stereotypes such as interest in fashion, dating, and personality tests.  We need more research on the influence of gender in the experience of technology, criteria for gender-equitable electronic environments, and approaches that engage both boys and girls.  (Bennett, 2000)
• Far more boys than girls played video games.  Boys’ early and sustained experience with gaming gave them an advantage in building competence and confidence with computers.  Computer-based media is increasingly important for learning and work, and games are being enlisted for educational purposes.  The participation of girls is thus all the more important and educational games need to take into account girls’ perspectives and preferences. (de Castell, 2006)
• Girls had little awareness of careers in IT, low interest in computers, no connection to information networks about IT, perceived that the computer is a toy, perceived that IT is not creative work, didn’t identify with IT professionals, and experienced teachers as lacking literacy and confidence.  (Witkowski, 2006)
• Training involving play with action video games may increase interest in information technology.  (Feng, 2006)
• We don’t worry about women participating in the web any more, but we still worry about two things: whether girls do and can and should play computer games and the fact that women are still not adequately represented in fields that design digital technology. (Jenkins, 2008)
• There is research evidence for discrimination that partly explains the lower percentages of women and minorities in science and engineering.  (Sevo, 2008)
• The digital divide between men and women can be overcome using a wide range of approaches based on social psychological theories, including changing family dynamics, interactions between students and teachers, and the organizations of schools. (Cooper, 2003)

Boys and Girls: The Same or Different?
• Male vervet monkeys tend to prefer what we consider boys’ toys, for example, toy cars and diggers.  The researcher conjectures that learned preferences for play toys have some basis in biological predisposition.  (Callaway, 2008)
• Female and male college students having the same computer experience had similar computer aptitude and self-efficacy (a form of confidence).  Attitudes toward computers differed based on sex, especially high masculinity, and some types of computer experience. (Ogletree, 1990)

Stereotyping in Society Generally
• Job applicants with masculine voices were rated as more competent than applicants with feminine voices, regardless of their actual gender and regardless of information in their resume.  A feminine voice was perceived as babyish and triggered stronger stereotypes.  The warmth of a job applicant was rated on the basis of the resume.  An applicant with a feminine resume was rated as warmer than one having a masculine resume.  Warmth is stereotyped positively for females and negatively for males, and is associated with a caring, friendly personality.  Competence is stereotyped positively for males and is associated with intelligence and motivation.  (Sei Jin Ko, 2009)
• The tendency to project stereotypes on others has different motivations:  the goal of comprehension (understanding others) and the goal of self-enhancement (building yourself up).  When the motive is comprehension, people apply positive and negative stereotypes.  When the motive is self-enhancement, or building the self up, people apply negative stereotypes on others, and not positive ones.  We can reduce the need to put others down with negative stereotypes by getting people to understand that it is not justified, and get them to focus on positive aspects of themselves.  (Van Den Bos, 2009)
• In a study of recall of sex-stereotyped toy pictures, males and females had similar memory and recall.  Males and females remembered an equal number of objects.  Everyone recalled more static toy pictures than dynamic ones.  Older subjects recalled more objects than younger subjects.  The study found no cognitive sex differences in memory tasks that required the recall of sex-stereotyped toy pictures.  (Cherney, 2001)
• Women primed for a mental rotation test got lower scores, indicating that the process of priming activated a stereotype of deficiency.  Priming of men did not yield a difference in scores.  (Ortner, 2008)

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Bennett, D., & Brunner, C. (2000)

Tech Learning’s Well-connected Educator Journal, 21

Synopsis:

A discussion of the potential for designing electronic learning and gaming environments for children, especially appealing to girls.

Keywords:

journal, educational games, pink games, gender equity, gender inclusive

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Bradshaw, J., Clegg, S., & Trayhurn D. (1995)


Gender and Education, 7(2), 167–175

Synopsis:

A study of whether primary school boys and girls presented with a genderless or androgynous character will assign a gender.

Keywords:

journal, gender stereotypes, avatars, gender identity, gender inclusive,

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Brunner, Corneila (2008)


in Beyond Barbie and Mortal Kombat: New Perspectives on Gender, Gaming, and Computing, edited by Yasmin Kafai, Carrie Heeter, Jill Denner, Jen Sun, MIT Press

Synopsis:

The paper considers whether the past decade of tremendous change in our uses of technology is also reflected in the evolution of game worlds toward gender-neutral environments.

Keywords:

book, chapter, gender stereotypes, gender inclusive, masculinity, feminity, what women want, what men want, IT careers

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Bryce Jo, Rutter Jason (2002)


DIGRA conference 2002 (http://www.digra.org/dl/)

Synopsis:

Examines the relationship between gaming and gender.

Keywords:

conference, gender stereotypes, violence, sexuality, avatars, game industry

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Bryce, Jo and Rutter, Jason (2003)


Leisure Studies, Volume 22, Issue 1 June 2003 , pages 1 - 15

Synopsis:

Looks broadly at computer games as a leisure activity for women.

Keywords:

journal, gaming social context, gaming culture, gender stereotypes

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Callaway, Ewen (2008)


New Scientist, April 4

Synopsis:

A study of male monkeys and their preferences for toys.

Keywords:

academia, journal, toys, gender stereotypes

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Cherney, Isabelle Denise (2001)


dissertation, University of Nebraska - Lincoln

Synopsis:

A study involving 160 children between ages 5 and 13, and adults, to study whether there are gender differences in memory, especially recall of sex-stereotyped toy pictures.

Keywords:

academia, case study, gender stereotypes, brain research, toys

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Cooper, Joel and Weaver, Kimberlee (2003)


Gender and Computers Understanding the Digital Divide, Lawrence Erlbaum: Philadelphia

Synopsis:

Presents evidence showing that girls and young women are being left behind on the road to information technology, and provides guideposts to overcoming this problem.

Keywords:

book, digital divide, IT careers, psychology, parents and gaming, learning, gender stereotypes

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Corneliussen, H. and Mortensen, T. (2006)


Women in Games. Conference Proceedings 2006, University of Abertay Press. ISBN 189979618-5.

Synopsis:

An analysis of the game Neverwinter Nights which was modified in order to appeal to women.

Keywords:

conference, editorial, Neverwinter Nights, avatars, sexuality, gender stereotypes

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

De Angeli, A. and Brahnam, S. (2006)


In Proc. of Gender and Interaction, Real and Virtual Women in a Male World Workshop (http://www.informatics.manchester.ac.uk/~antonella/gender/papers.htm) Discussion of conversational agents in computer environments and the way people interact with them.

Keywords:

conference, experiment, avatars, harassment, aggression, gender stereotypes

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

de Castell, S.& Jenson, J. (2006)


Proceeding (528) Computers and Advanced Technology in Education - http://www.actapress.com/Abstract.aspx?paperId=28536

Synopsis:

Reports on findings from a three-year, Canadian federally funded research project entitled “Education, Gender and Gaming” that examined why far more boys than girls play video games. 

Keywords:

case study, conference, Canada, gender stereotypes, gaming culture, educational games, learning outcome

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Deitz, T. L. (1998)


Sex Roles, 38, 425-442

Synopsis:

Project analyzed the content of popular video games for their presentation of gender roles and violent themes.

Keywords:

survey, journal, violence, aggression, gender stereotypes, children, gender identity

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Denner, Jill, Steve Bean, and Linda Werner (2005)


DIGRA conference, Vancouver, Canada

Synopsis:

Describes the content of 45 games that were designed and programmed by middle school girls in order to determine what girls like about games and gaming.

Keywords:

case study, conference, middle school, girls designing games, gender inclusive, storytelling, cooperation, gender stereotypes, gender equity

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Downs, Edward and Stacy Smith (2009)


Sex Roles, Online First, http://www.springerlink.com.proxy2.cl.msu.edu/content/1646t34676837317/?p=16549da27d814aa797fa57186f10f9fb&pi=2

Synopsis:

Content analysis of 60 video games including 489 separate characters, from 2003.

Keywords:

sexuality, academic, journal, content analysis, gender stereotypes

Full Text: No | Abstract: Yes

Durndell, Alan, Glissov, Peter, and Gerda Siann (1995)


Educational Research, 37(3), 219-227

Synopsis:

Students (429) in five Scottish secondary schools (first, third, and sixth years) were studied regarding their experience with computers and their attitudes.  A subsample of 196 was further analyzed.

Keywords:

journal, survey, Scotland, computer skills, gender stereotypes, children middle school

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Feng, J. and Spence, I. (2006)


from Proceedings (525) Education and Technology, http://www.actapress.com/PaperInfo.aspx?PaperID=27545 ACTA Press

Synopsis:

The project studied whether giving women and girls training involving play with action video games increased their interest in information and communication technology tasks.

Keywords:

journal, IT careers, gender stereotypes, gaming culture

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Hamm, Shaylyn (2009)


Southern Methodist University MA project

Synopsis:

This field review explores the aesthetics of female game characters and different ways that they can be designed.

Keywords:

gender stereotypes, sexuality, NPCs

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes

Huff, C., & Cooper, J. (1987)


Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, 519-532

Synopsis:

Forty-three educators with programming experience were assigned to design educational software – some were told to design for boys, others for girls, and still others for “students.” Research looked at whether and how designer expectations about the target player impacted what they designed.

Keywords:

journal, psychology, gender stereotypes, educational games, learning, gaming culture, game design

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Jenkins, Henry (1998)


In From Barbie to Mortal Kombat: Gender and Computer Games, Justine Cassell and Henry Jenkins, Eds., MIT Press http://web.mit.edu/cms/People/henry3/gamegrrlz.html

Synopsis:

A snapshot of the emerging subculture of female gamers from web pages in late 1997 and early 1998, called game girls.

Keywords:

book, chapter, Quake, pink games, gender stereotypes, editorial

Full Text: No | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Jenkins, Henry and Cassell, Justine (2008)


in Beyond Barbie and Mortal Kombat: New Perspectives on Gender, Gaming, and Computing, edited by Yasmin Kafai, Carrie Heeter, Jill Denner, Jen Sun, MIT Press

Synopsis:

A paper on women’s participation in computer games.

Keywords:

book, chapter, gender stereotypes, what women want, game industry, The Sims, genre casual games, genre educational games, gender inclusive, Desperate Housewives

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Jenson, Jennifer; Suzanne de Castell (2007)


DIGRA conference 2007

Synopsis:

Commentary on research about “what girls like best” and needed shifts in thinking. 

Keywords:

conference, gaming culture, gender stereotypes, what women want, game design

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

John, Sara (2006)


Gender and Interaction: Real and Virtual Women in a male world (http://www.informatics.manchester.ac.uk/~antonella/gender/index.htm)

Synopsis:

A team developing computer games was studied for insight into their decisions, especially concerning gender and the creation of avatars.

Keywords:

case study, conference, gender stereotypes, avatars, NPCs, game industry, sexuality, game design, England

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Larsson, Anna and Nerén, Carina (2005)


SICS Technical Report T2005:06

Synopsis:

A study of the characteristics of female avatars, stereotypes of women, and how men and women relate to hyper-sexualized avatars.

Keywords:

report, academia, sexuality, avatars, what women want, what men want, gender stereotypes

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Laurel, Brenda (2001)


Cambridge: MIT Press

Synopsis:

A book about entrepreneur Brenda Laurel’s game industry experiences with her company, Purple Moon, a series of computer games for girls.

Keywords:

book, game industry, what women want, game design, pink games, gender stereotypes

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Lee, Eun-Ju (2008)


Journal of Communication

Synopsis:

A study posed computers as male or female characters/social actors, and studied whether people responded to them differently depending on the gender.

Keywords:

Academia, experiment, journal, gender identity, NPCs, trivia games

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Miller, M.K. and Summers, A. (2007)


Sex Roles, v57, 733-742, 2007

Synopsis:

A content analysis of 49 articles in video game magazines, coding 115 characters, to study gender roles.

Keywords:

journal, avatars, sexuality, gaming culture, fandom, gender stereotypes

Full Text: No | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Mou, Yi; Peng, Wei (2009)


Handbook of Research on Effective Electronic Gaming in Education

Synopsis:

A review of studies of gender and racial stereotypes in portrayals of characters in video games and a content analysis of 19 popular video games.

Keywords:

academia, book, chapter, gender stereotypes, psychology, NPCs, avatars, ethnicity

Full Text: No | Abstract: Yes

Norris, Kamala (2004)


CyberPsychology & Behavior. 2004, 7(6): 714-727,

Synopsis:

An online survey was conducted on women who played computer games and women who used the computer but did not play computer games to explore gender identity and aggressive personality in the context of computers.

Keywords:

Journal, gender stereotypes, harassment, gender identity, IT careers, gender inclusive, aggression

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Ogletree, S. M., & Williams, S. W. (1990)


Sex Roles, 23, 703-712

Synopsis:

A study of 125 college students about the relationships between sex, computer experience, computer attitudes, self-efficacy (a form of confidence), and computer aptitude.

Keywords:

journal, psychology, gender_stereotypes, self_efficacy, masculinity

Full Text: No | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Ortner, Tuulia M. and Monika Sieverding (2008)


Sex Roles Volume 59, Numbers 3-4

Synopsis:

Using a sample of 161 men and women (mean age=31.90) from Austria, the study looks at the effect of gender stereotype activation by priming the subjects for a spatial relations test.

Keywords:

Academia, Experiment, journal article, Austria, Gender theories, spatial cognition, gender stereotypes, psychology

Full Text: No | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Sei Jin Ko; Judd, Charles M.; Stapel, Diederik A. (2009)


Personality And Social Psychology Bulletin, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 198-211, February

Synopsis:

An examination of whether people judge a job applicant’s competence and warmth on the basis of vocal cues. 

Keywords:

academia,experiment,journal,stereotypes,game design, NPCs

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Sevo, Ruta and Daryl Chubin (2008)


http://momox.org/biasliteracy.html

Synopsis:

A digest of basics regarding discrimination, with an emphasis on women in science and engineering:  laws, terminology, concepts in research, intervention programs, organizations, and metrics.

Keywords:

literature review, academia, workforce, IT careers, working conditions, gender equity, harassment, gender stereotypes

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Van Den Bos, Arne and Stapel, Diederik A. (2009)


Personality And Social Psychology Bulletin, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 101-113, January

Synopsis:

Studies whether a person’s motivation determines how they apply stereotypes.

Keywords:

academia,experiment,journal,stereotypes

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes

Witkowski, Emma (2006)


EDU-ART

Synopsis:

Young women in Danish schools between the ages of 13 and 19, teachers, and computer technology laboratory leaders were interviewed about computer technology.

Keywords:

Denmark, case study, gender stereotypes, computer skills, IT careers, gaming culture, empowerment, self efficacy, high school, media literacy

Full Text: Yes | Abstract: Yes | Highlights: Yes